Jörg Kammerhofer is Senior Research Fellow at the University of Freiburg, Germany, and Privatdozent for international law and legal theory at the Vienna University of Economics and Business. His publications include Uncertainty in International Law (2010), and International Legal Positivism in a Post-Modern World, co-edited with Jean d'Aspremont (Cambridge, 2014).

1. Introduction; 2. Customary international law; 3. Investment precedents; 4. Treaty interpretation; 5. Doctrinal scholarship; 6. The regulatory expropriation conundrum; 7. Expropriation: a new beginning; 8. Expropriation reconstructed.