The limnological study of Toolik Lake began in the Summer of 1975. This research was an outgrowth of the arctic IBP project which had focused mainly on small Arctic pond ecosystems on the Alaskan Arctic coastal plain. It was thought desirable to study larger, deeper lakes which contained fish to further generalizations developed during the IBP study. Initial research on Toolik Lake and the surrounding lakes and ponds focused on process studies such as annual primary productivity of the lake or the vertical migration patterns of the resident zooplankton. In 1983 the philosophy of the research changed with the funding of a more integrated programme. The fundamental question posed was whether Arctic lake and stream ecosystems are regulated from the bottom up by nutrient availability or from the top down by the density and activity of top predators. In 1987 the Toolik Lake area was designated an LTER (Long-Term Ecological Research) site, one of 18 such sites throughout the United States, Puerto Rico and the Antarctic. The research theme for the Arctic LTER also focuses on the regulation of Arctic ecosystems, whether regulation comes from the top down or bottom up. The Arctic LTER also incorporates a terrestrial component as well as a lake and stream component.

Value Conflicts in Allocation and Care.- National Health Care Systems: Conflicting Visions.- National Health Care Systems: Concurring Conflicts.- National Health Care Systems.- An Ethical Evaluation of Health Care in the United States.- The Health Care System of the Federal Republic of Germany: Moral Issues and Public Policy.- The American and West German Health Care Systems: A Physician's Reflections.- Socialism, Equity, and Cost Containment in Health: The French Experience.- Ethics and Health Policy in the Netherlands.- Health in the U.S.S.R.: Organization, Trends, and Ethics.- The Public and Private Regulation of Health Care Markets.- Justice as Fairness or Fairness as Prudence?.- Macro-Allocation and Micro-Allocation.- Macro-Allocation in Health Care in the Federal Republic of Germany.- The Macro-Allocation of Health Care Resources.- Rights, Reasonable Expectations, and Rationing: A Commentary on the Essays of Ruth Mattheis and Baruch Brody.- Political-Medical Allocations in the Compulsory Health Insurance Program in the Federal Republic of Germany.- Micro-Allocation in the Health Care System: Fiscal Consolidation with Structural Reforms?.- Medical Micro-Allocation: Is and Ought.- Preventive Medicine, Occupational Health, and Future Issues.- Preventive Interventionism and Individual Liberty.- Improving Occupational Health in the Federal Republic of Germany.- A View from a Clinician's Window.- Epilogue.