1. Introduction.- I. Diagnostic Reliability and Epidemiology of DSM-III Anxiety Disorders.- 2. Diagnostic Reliability of Anxiety Disorders.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Definition and Classification of Anxiety Disorders.- 3. Aims.- 4. Methods.- 5. Results.- 5.1. Diagnostic Test-Retest Reliability.- 5.2. Test-Retest Reliability of Symptom Questions.- 5.3. Comparison of Two Diagnostic Methods (DSM-III checklist versus CIDI).- 6. Discussion.- 7. References.- 3. Epidemiology of Panic Attacks and Panic Disorders.- 1. Introduction: Contribution of Epidemiological Data to the Classification of Anxiety Disorders.- 2. Aims.- 3. Methods.- 3.1. Description of the Munich Follow-up Study (MFS).- 3.2. Design and Instruments.- 3.3. Data from the NIMH Epidemiological Catchment Area (ECA) Program.- 3.4. Analysis.- 4. Results.- 4.1. Prevalence Rates and Biosocial Characteristics of DSM-III Anxiety Disorders.- 4.2. Frequencies of Symptoms and Syndromes Related to Panic Disorders.- 4.3. Age of Onset of Anxiety Disorders.- 5. Discussion.- 6. References.- II. Theoretical Models and Empirical Evidence.- 4. Panic Attacks: Theoretical Models and Empirical Evidence.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Biological Models of Panic Attacks.- 2.1. Klein's and Sheehan's Models.- 2.2. Empirical Evidence.- 2.2.1. Specificity of Drug Treatments.- 2.2.2. Panic Induction.- 2.2.3. Family and Twin Studies.- 2.2.4. Spontaneity of Panic Attacks.- 2.2.5. Separation Anxiety and School Phobia.- 3. Psychophysiological Models of Panic Attacks.- 3.1. Principles of Psychophysiological Models.- 3.2. Empirical Evidence.- 3.2.1. Positive Feedback Loops in Panic.- 3.2.2. Role of Cognitions.- 3.2.3. Role of Hyperventilation.- 3.2.4. Role of Cardiovascular Events.- 3.2.5. Role of Vestibular Dysfunction.- 4. Discussion and Conclusions.- 5. References.- 5. Experimental Panic: Biobehavioral Notes on Empirical Findings.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Phobias.- 2.1 Some Behavioral Models.- 2.2 Biological Aspects of Behavioral Models of Phobias.- 3. Panic.- 3.1 Biological Models.- 3.2 Behavioral Aspects of Pharmacological Panic Models.- 4. Concluding Remarks.- 5. References.- 6. Experimental Induction of Panic Attacks.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Sodium Lactate and Carbon Dioxide as Panic Challenges - Historical Development.- 2.1. Lactate Infusion and Panic Attacks.- 2.2. Carbon Dioxide Inhalation and Panic Attacks.- 3. Results of Panic Induction Studies.- 3.1. Effects of Lactate and CO2.- 3.1.1. Self-Reported Anxiety and Symptoms.- 3.1.2. Physiological Effects.- 3.1.3. Biochemical Effects.- 3.2. Incidence of Lactate and CO2-Induced Panic Attacks.- 3.3. Similarity of Laboratory-Induced and Naturally Occurring Panic.- 4. Panic Induction: Limitations and Open Questions.- 4.1. Methodological Considerations.- 4.2. Sensitivity and Specificity of Panic Challenges.- 4.3. Relevance of Baseline Levels of Anxiety and Arousal.- 5. Two Studies on Panic Induction.- 6. Discussion and Conclusions.- 7. References.- 7. Agoraphobia and the Hyperventilation Syndrome - the Role of Interpretations of Complaints.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 3. Results.- 4. Discussion.- 5. References.- 8. Panic Disorder - Overlap with Symptoms of Somatization Disorder.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 2.1. Subjects.- 2.2. The Self-Report Inventory for Somatic Symptoms (SISS).- 2.3. Procedure.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Psychometric Properties of the SISS.- 3.2. Differences between Panic and Control Groups.- 3.3. Relationship between Phobic Avoidance and Major Depression.- 3.4. Relationships with Other Measures.- 4. Discussion.- 5. References.- III. Treatments and Longterm Outcome of Phobias with Panic Attacks.- 9. Longterm Efficacy of Exposure in-Vivo for Cardiac Phobia.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Description of our Exposure Therapy Package.- 2.1. Diagnostic Phase.- 2.2. Cognitive Preparation.- 2.3. Intense Exposure in-Vivo.- 2.4. Self-Control.- 3. Goals and Design of our Study.- 4. Methods.- 4.1. Patients and Therapists.- 4.2. Assessment.- 4.2.1. Questionnaire Measures.- 4.2.2. Behavioral Test.- 4.2.3. Other Symptom-Relevant Variables.- 5. Results.- 5.1. Results for the Entire Patient Group.- 5.1.1. Questionnaire Measures.- 5.1.2. Behavioral Test.- 5.1.3. Other Symptom-Relevant Variables.- 5.2. Comparison of Groups A and B.- 6. Discussion.- 7. References.- 10. Cognitive and Physiological Processes in the Maintainance and Treatment of Panic Attacks.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Effectiveness of Treatment Based on the Cognitive Model of Panic.- 3. Interpretation of Treatment Studies.- 4. Effects of Stress and Panic on Respiration in Panic Patients.- 5. Discussion.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 11. Exposure In-Vivo with Panic Management for Agoraphobia: Treatment Rationale and Longterm Outcome.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Experimental Design.- 2.1. Treatments: Exposure In-Vivo and Panic Management.- 2.2. Patients.- 2.3. Assessments.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Outcome for Total Patient Sample.- 3.1.1. Symptom Scales: Prospective Follow-Up.- 3.1.2. Interview Data: Retrospective Follow-Up.- 3.1.3. Comparison of Outcome with Three Different Modes of Exposure.- 3.2. Outcome of Mild Agoraphobia.- 3.3. Outcome of Severe Agoraphobia.- 3.3.1. Comparison of Outcome with Group Exposure and Home Based Treatment.- 3.3.2. Comparison of Gainers and Losers.- 3.3.3. Level of Multisymptomatic Disturbance and Outcome in Agoraphobia.- 3.3.4. Changes During Follow-Up.- 4. Summary and Discussion.- 5. References.